@misc{oai:niigata-u.repo.nii.ac.jp:00005342,
 author = {Mochizuki, Shota},
 month = {Mar},
 note = {In this paper, I focused human–wildlife conflict caused by crop-raiding Japanese macaques. To develop an appropriate relationship between people and Japanese macaques, it is important to have an understanding of the Japanese macaque's behavior. The objective of this study is to suggest the information for resolving human-wildlife conflicts caused by crop-raiding Japanese macaques following multi-scale gradient modeling approach including spatial and temporal variation of landscape structure. In the Chapter 2, I calculated landscape indices of their habitats and measured differences in frequency of farmland invasion between the Japanese macaque's troops. The objective of this chapter was to determine the relationship between troop invasion frequency and landscape indices. Location data of the "YK" and "OT" troops were collected by radio telemetry from 2004 to 2006. A land-cover map was acquired from remotely sensed imagery. To discern differences between troop habitats, the landscape index of each patch was calculated. Size, shape, and configuration of habitat were selected from deductive approach. A generalized linear mixed model was applied to identify environmental factors contributing to farmland invasion by the troops. The home range area of the OT troop was larger than that of the YK troop, and within the ranges, the ratio of farmland to home range and the ratio of urban land to home range was higher for the OT troop. For each landscape index, a difference was found between the habitats of the two troops. In models of the two troops, distance between farmland and forest boundary and distance from a road were important factors. Moreover, the frequency of farmland invasion differed in distances from exclosure fences. Differences in farmland invasion between troops were attributable to differences in habitat landscape indices. The shape of the OT troop habitat was relatively complex, increasing opportunities for macaques to come in contact with farmland. Using a satellite-based vegetation index, I evaluated the changes in home range sizes of Japanese macaques during the seasonal transitions to summer and winter for four years in the Chapter 3. The objective of this chapter was to clarify the relationship between change in the home range size of Japanese macaque troops and seasonal variation in NDVI. From late spring to summer, home range size decreased and the vegetation index increased. From summer to early winter, home range size increased and the vegetation index decreased. I predicted the changes in home range size by NDVI increases and decreases. The results of patch-based analyses using linear-mixed models showed that the number of habitat patches was most important for predicting home range behavior during the transition to summer, whereas patch size was most important during the transition to winter. Summers are a period of food shortage for Japanese macaques in their natural forest habitat, but many troops have adapted to feed on agricultural crops during the summer. Therefore, the number of patches is an important factor determining home range behavior. Japanese macaques prefer large resource patches during periods of low resource availability. The results show ecological differences between crop-dependent and natural troops of Japanese macaques., The aim of the Chapter 4 was to evaluate changes in macaque habitat selection during a 29-year period. I focused on the 1970s, when little crop damage was caused by Japanese macaques, and the 2000s, when the damage became remarkable. Landsat/MSS from 1978 and ALOS/AVNIR-2 from 2007 were employed for land-cover mapping. I applied a Random Forest model for machine learning and data mining to predict the habitat selection of macaques. Several important environmental factors were identified for macaque habitat selection: the ratio of coniferous forest to farmland, distance to farmland, and maximum snow depth. The Random Forest model was extrapolated to the 1978 land-cover map. Over the 29-year period, coniferous forest changed to broad-leaved forest and/or mixed forest within the macaque habitat area. Coniferous forests were not selected as food resources by Japanese macaques. I indicated that habitat selection by Japanese macaques changed over the study period. The results show that the home range of macaques expanded, and macaques may now be distributed over a wider area as a result of changes in landscape configuration. Resource selection functions can be influenced by the heterogeneity of landscape structures, and landscape heterogeneity occurs over multiple spatial scales. In the Chapter 5, I investigated the scale dependency and functional responses of Japanese macaques using multiple scale analysis. The occurrence of crop damage was predicted at the within-home range scale using environmental variables linked with resource selection. Sixteen environmental variables were defined including aspects of the type of landscape configuration, human disturbance, topography, and countermeasures that have been employed. The Random Forests algorithm was used to predict the crop damage. The most suitable spatial extent for crop damage prediction was the buffer with a 1000 m radius. The importance of variables was differed among spatial extents. However, the functional responses for each environmental variable were not influenced by the differences in spatial extent. These results suggest that the limiting factors for crop damage depended on spatial extent with the functional responses in resource selection remaining constant across spatial extents. These results may aid wildlife management planning, for which it is necessary to detect differences in resource selection across different spatial scales. In these studies, there was a strong relation between the change of the habitat which is caused by the spatial and temporal gradients and the behavior of the Japanese macaques (in Chapters 3, 4, and 5). Moreover, my research showed a possibility that this relation was different for every macaque's troop (in Chapter 2). These results suggest that risk management in each troop is important for crop protection. For the appropriate management of crop-raiding Japanese macaques, the monitoring of each troop is a first step. For establishing a satisfactory relationship between wildlife and humans, it is necessary to understand a boundary between wildlife habitats and human activities. Then, landscape management under the spatial and temporal variation will perform an important role for risk management., 学位の種類: 博士（農学）. 報告番号: 甲第3795号. 学位記番号: 新大院博（農）甲第126号. 学位授与年月日: 平成25年3月25日, 新大院博（農）甲第126号},
 title = {Predicting the impact of landscape heterogeneity on crop-raiding Japanese macaques using spatial and temporal scale approach},
 year = {2013}
}